The history of Russian and Soviet forward looking infrared, infrared line scanning, infrared search and track, low light level television, and image intensification devices.
In this essay we will go over the history of soviet and Russian night vision technology and debunk many myths. We will go over all areas relating to night vision technology.
LLLTV = Low Light Level Television
IRLS = Infrared Line Scanning
IRST = Infrared Search and Track
FLIR = Forward Looking Infrared
IID = Image Intensification Devices
Areas that will be added are laser based imaging and early flash photography.
This is mainly about disproving 4 ideas.
Soviets never had FLIR (or only few Prototypes)
Russia had to buy French FLIR to catch up to 2nd Generation
Russia has no domestic 3rd Generation FLIR
That the soviets were decades behind the US in night vision (image intensifiers)
So let's go over thermal imaging and debunk this idea that the Soviets never had thermals because it's so hilariously wrong.
Something To remember was the quality of thermals back then was very poor, they had very poor visibility in bad weather, stabilisation issues, no target tracking etc. Whilst Soviets invested heavy into image intensifiers built into digital electro optics with systems like Agat, TKN-A, Buran and 1PN61 being incredibly advanced with automatic target tracking and ability to be slaved to CRT or LCD displays however it was clear by the late 80s and early 90s when 2nd Generation thermals were beginning to appear in mass that image intensification devices were going to become obsolete.
It's also strange why soviets would only utilise thermals on recon equipment when their head armour designers emphasised that T-80U and BMP-3 MUST have a thermal imager to be competitive, whilst definitely an exaggeration in early 80s, by the 90s with the proliferation of 2nd gen this was 100% true.
The initial Agava had major problems with identification range but 1PN59 and 19N71 were perfectly fine and were utilised on over 300 production soviet vehicles whilst 1PN66 would be produced for russia and 2nd gen 1TTP would be mass produced for russia and produced on over 60 soviet systems with huge exports with no issues.
It is genuinely a mystery. Top theories are.
Defensive doctrine was largely built around an attack by the usa and in their home ground they would have control
Complacency, since 50s soviet tankers trained to use two sights with the main day sight being the primary sight used so switching to a system that combines both.
Politics, higher ups maybe refused to see thermals as being better than advanced image intensifiers
Least likely. Spies embedded in higher uplike tolkachev may have persuaded brass that thermals wasn't going to be needed
The fact that many of the rare minerals needed for these devices electronics were only accessible in African or South American countries, as we discussed previously in the USSR solid state electronics section in my myths around USSR post, the USSR was cut off from much of the global market and was not even on talking terms with the resource rich China, so it's all well having a few production vehicles with them but in all out war for mass production they might not have had enough.
In the end. It is a mystery as the soviets by mid 80s fully had the capabilities to mass produce quality thermal imagers.
There's also Given that (based on studies during cold war) around 90% of the regions in mainland Europe would be fought at distances no greater than 1400m and defensively this would have Illumination and modern soviet tanks T-80U, T-80BV and T-64BV that use 1G46, 1G42 and 1G21 digitally assisted telescopic optical sights that would easily see tank sized targets at those ranges.
(Some of the FPA and format matrices are estimates, if no known data the last common one will be used along with data on its abilities for example if it was said to be a much more capable sight than previous ones)
Many in military analysis circles would have you think the soviets had no thermals in production, in fact I myself Believed the common myth that the soviets struggled to build thermals and the only thermal imager they had was the crappy Agava made in late 80s as a desperate attempt to catch up with the west.
But what if I told you that the Soviets had created over not just one thermal imager but dozens.
In truth the Soviets had created no less than 70 infrared imaging devices with over 30 of them being produced for Soviet equipment for the USSR. Exact list as below.
8x LLLTV systems for aircraft
2x LLLTV systems for naval guns
3x LLLTV system for SAMs
16x infrared line scanners
7x thermal imagers for aircraft
14x thermal imagers for vehicles
16x experimental thermal imagers
5x thermal imagers for portable launchers
1x FPA seeker for munition
Low Light Level Television (LLLTV)
LLLTV systems utilise various technologies always involving slaving an image to a screen (usually a digital image such as CCD) through various methods. There were two different kinds of LLLTV systems used by the Russians.
1. Low contrast.
This system utilises contrast enhancement to allow visibility at night. It was the most common system utilised by the soviets and Russians as it needed very little light to operate.
Examples include Kaira-1.
2. IR Scanning
These were a video system that recorded live images combined with an IR scanner that overlayed it to give it a "near" infrared imaging system, these were less common as they required active Illumination or ambient light for quality images. Early FLIR systems (or Gen 0) are classified as this as whilst they produce enough quality for night vision their ability to detect IR is very limited.
Examples include Merkuriy.
The Soviets first low light level television system was the IVP-2 Samotsvet for MiG-21PF aircraft in 1968 which was a very low definition LLLTV.
This was followed on by the improved 300×200p Kaira-1 for MiG-27K in 1974 then the 300×200p Strizh for Tu-143 UAV in 1975
Their first standard definition system with the 500×400p Kaira-24 on Su-24M in 1977
Their first high definition system was the 550×600p Merkuriy for Su-25T developed in early 80s.
Osa-AKM
Tor
Tunguska
AK-176 and AK-130
On to Russian versions
Platan low contrast 800×900p LLLTV.
Infrared Line Scanning (IRLS)
IRLS is a method used to obtain thermal images and temperature profiles of objects, particularly useful for continuously moving targets in industrial settings. Unlike traditional thermal cameras that capture a complete image in a single frame (area scanning as in FLIR), IRLS builds a 2D thermal image by capturing successive lines of temperature data as the object moves beneath it.
Early systems were basically thermal photographs but as the technology advanced live thermal imaging was allowed thanks to increases in line scanner speeds and digital image technology. IRLS was the most common system used for night time reconnaissance from the late 60s till the end of the USSR when in the 2000s it was replaced with 2nd and 3rd Generation FLIR systems.
1st Generation.
Basic 10 to 60 element detectors with slow scanning allowing thermal photography.
2nd Generation
100 to 256x element detectors with live TV imaging.
The Soviets first IRLS system was the Photon-4 that was an infrared line scanner that was for use on the TGR live TV reconnaissance satellite tested in 1965 that utilised a very basic ~10x element matrix. This however failed to materialise due to technology issues getting the live TV image.
The Soviets first produced IRLS system was the Zima series of infrared line scanners developed in the mid to late 60s, It was broken up into two systems.
Zima-7R was a very low resolution thermal photography system and utilised a very basic 10x to 30x element matrix with an IR band of 3-5 μm, it was used by Tu-95RT and Tu-22RDM
Zima-8R IRLS was developed in the mid 70s and was the Soviets first 2nd Generation IRLS system and utilised an improved 60x to 100x element matrix with an IR band of 8-13 μm and was an improved system with improved low definition resolution and allowing live TV image transmission to ground units or aircraft. These were utilised by Tu-243, Su-24MR and Tu-22MR reconnaissance aircraft and also used on the KKR-2A and Prostor recon pods for Su-17MR, Yak-28R-TARK-2 and MiG-21R-TARK-2.
This was followed by the Agat-1 camera on the Almaz space station during the late 70s that used the Last-ochka-65 thermal photography IRLS. This was followed by with the Almaz-T reconnaissance satellite during early 80s that both utilised the Volga-S1 IR line scanner for live transmitted infrared imaging recordings, this would also be followed with the much higher resolution Volga-S2 for the Almaz-1 satellites which was the first digital CCD live TV IRLS in the mid 80s that gave 2nd Generation infrared image qualities.
Line scan image
Higher quality vs low quality IRLS
Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR)
FLIR is a thermal imaging systems used to sense infrared radiation, essentially detecting heat signatures from objects and converting them into a direct live visual image or video.
Before we start, there is no actual universally agreed upon definition on what defines thermal Generations, there are three common versions with different standards.
Device
Gen 0 = Single or few elements.
Gen 1 = vector detectors, usually containing 64 or more elements with a two dimensional mechanical image scanner.
Gen 2 = Sub matrices introduced with TDI added again with two dimension scanning
Gen 3 = whole matrices with no mechanical scanning for gaining 2D image and no moving prisms and no tilting mirror. The detector elements are located on a two dimensional focal plane array (FPA), i.e. a chip containing one detector for each pixel that is generated as output
I dont consider Gen 0 to be true FLIR it's more akin to IR based LLLTV as it doesn't produce enough IR hue to sufficiently detect IR radiation at any good distance.
Microbolometer
Gen 1 = 256x256 or 320×240 UPF
Gen 2 = 512x512 or 640x480 UPF
Gen 3 = 1024x1024 or 1280×960 UPF
Thermal image Resolution
Gen 1 = Low/Standard Definition so thermal image resolutions of 320×240p, 388×288p and 480×380p.
Gen 2 = High Definition so thermal image resolutions of 500×400p, 640×480p and 756×576p
Gen 3 = FHD to UHD so thermal image resolutions of 800×600p, 1024×720p and 1280×1080p.
My Version.
Generation 1
FPA Resolution: 160×180, 320×240 and 388×288
Matrix Element: 64x, 128x and 256x
Microbolometer: 160x120 and 320x240
Device: Vector detector with 2D scan
Refresh rate: 20-40 Hz
NEP SNR: 10:1 to 15:1
NETp: 80-200 mK
Pixel Pitch: 40-60 µm
Generation 2
FPA Resolution: 500×380, 640×480 and 756×578
Matrix Element: 48x4, 4x288 and 2x256
Microbolometer: 640x480
Device: sub matrices with TDI and 2D scan
Refresh rate: 20-50 Hz
NEP SNR: 20:1 to 30:1
NETp: 70-40 mK
Pixel Pitch: 30-40 µm
Features: Automatic target tracking with full 2x axis image stabilisation
Generation 3
Resolution: 640×512, 1280×1024 & 1280×960
Matrix Element: 640x480, 320x256 and 640x512
Microbolometer: 1280x960
Device: Vector detector with no mechanical scanning
Refresh rate: 30-60 Hz
NEP SNR: 40:1 to 60:1
NETp: 10-30 mK
Pixel Pitch: 10-25 µm
Features: Full automation of tracking, acquisition and identification with enhanced image stability
Need to score at least 5 or have the correct device.
My SMR main document has Full information for exact criteria.
“you can't just make up Generations”
My guy, there is no definitive answer.
If you really wanted to get technical. There could be 7 Generations.
Gen 1 = basic thermal photography
Gen 2 = true infrared line scanning
Gen 3 = 64x element with 120×160 to 240×120 resolution live video FLIR
Gen 4 = 128x to 256x element with 320×240 to 380×280 FPA with two dimension scanning basic II
Gen 5 = Sub matrices or improved MBs With 2x288 to 4x288 matrix element with 640x480 to 756×568 FPAs with TDI done during scanning and target tracking
Gen 6 = 650×512 to 768×576 FPA with fully automated tracking, acquisition and locking
Gen 7 = 1024×720 to 1280×1080 FPAs
Like people think there are some objective mathematical criteria companies adhere to when classifying thermals lol, it's mostly just marketing.
For example, people say that resolution is all that matters yet ignore SEOSS and Saphir which are all classified as 3rd Generation but only have resolutions of 640×512p or Swedish PLSS which is only 640×480p.
They say sub matrices can't be 3rd Generation yet Ibris-K and KLW-1 Asteria both 4x288 sub matrix elements are classified as 3rd Generation.
They say 3rd Generation is defined by only high definition whole UPF matrix like 640x480 then by this logic the marketed 3rd GGeneration Agat-MDT or ATTICA with matrix elements of 320x256 and 384x288 with use of micros/image interpolation are bumped to FPA resolutions of 640×512p and 768×576p aren't 3rd Gen.
See 3rd Generation MATIS with a 320x240 matrix.
Another issue is people using videos of thernsls as proof of resolution or ranges.
That's the Sniper pod which carries AN/AAQ-33 3rd gen imager with a 1280×1024p thermal image resolution and 640x512 format yet looks low definition.
That's the M1A1FEP with the same 2GEN-FLIR as SepV2 and SA with ~800×600p resolution at 1400m (less than half its range to be able to identify a tank sized target)
There's also imagers that can micro scan or perform image interpolation to digitally increase resolution, very common on third generation matrices. Examples of how it works below
Right is raw image, left is after digital improvement.
Sane again, left is raw image whilst right is digitally improved.
This looks very blurry
Yet here is image from same imager again.
There's also the fact that you don't know what mode is being used, (is it in auto track, is it WFOV or NFOV, what contrast level is it at) so when you see people using videos or photographs of thermal images and trying to act as though it proves something (like the imagers detection or identification range or its quality or Generation) ignore them, as they don't know what they're talking about.
So in short, there is no right or wrong when talking about Generations.
But first, terminology.
Thermal image resolution = focal plane array resolution. So basically what's the real resolution of the thermal image displayed on screen, note the thermal image on screen NOT the visual light image as many people confuse normal screen resolution with thermal resolution , for example the TPV module on Berezhok and SADA II on the SepV1 are 640×480p FPAs yet they are slaved to digital displays that have an 800×600p video resolution, similarly the Su-35S has an imager with a 800×600p thermal image resolution yet is slaved to a screen with a 2140×1440p resolution. But modern imagers can perform image interpolation to increase thermal resolution, for example 3rd Generation ATTICA matrix and FEM18 matrix have element formats of 384x288 and 640x512 but through digital technologies their resolution displayed on the screen are 768×576p and 1280×1024p. Higher end 3rd Generation thermal imagers such as the Catherine-MP use megapixel whole matrices so that the matrix element is 1280x1024 with a 1280×1024p thermal image resolution (can be improved to 2560×2048p image resolution), this gives much superior WFOV identification, crisper image quality and much better image stability when moving.
Matrix element = Also known as format, this is how many individual elements there are in the sensor, early sensors were very simple 32 or 64 elements (0 Gen) then with single 100, 128x or 256x element matrices were introduced with 1st generation, when 2nd Generation came around it introduced sub matrices such as 4x48 or 4x288 and when 3rd Generation came around it built upon this and introduced very large matrix elements such as 320x256 or 640x512.
μm = this is the infrared band the imager sees in which is 1-14, early uncooled systems where at the lower end but 1st and 2nd Gen settled on mid high level with early 3rd Gen expanding the mid to high region and higher end 3rd Generation going back to the lower end with long waves.
Soviets started development of FLIR in the early 70s with numerous experimental imagers made and in 1979, thermal imagers for ground vehicles began.
1st Generation FLIR
The first soviet equipment to utilise a fully functioning 1st Generation FLIR system would be the T-80B in 1982 which was trialled with the T01-P01 sight that would have been for the T-80U, with an Agava matrix with a 100x element device with 320×240p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 8-14 μm, however it was said to have a pretty bad identification range (less than 600m) and had a very low MTBF rate along with very poor image refresh rates, for these reasons they were not adopted and the T-80U would stick with the solid 1G46 digitally assisted sight with the equally solid T01-K01 fully stabilised night sight with the Buran-PA 3rd Generation image intensifier.
Early soviet thermal image
comparison vs Abrams and Leopard type sight in 80s.
The first ground vehicle to receive production thermals was the PRP-4 reconnaissance vehicle in 1984 that utilised the 1PN59 matrix which was a 100x element device with a 320×240p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 8-14 μm with a refresh rate of 24 Hz, this time however the issues were resolved and the vehicle was approved for production in 1985 with around 100 to 300 being built.
300m range
We then had the Schmel-1 in 1985 for the Pchela-1T recon UAV which was another 100x element device with a 320×240 thermal image resolution and an IR band of 8-14 μm, which was approved for production in 1988 and entered service in 1990 with over 100 made.
The first ground assault vehicle to receive production thermals was the BRM-3K recon IFV (along with PRP-4M) in 1986 which used the BPK sight system with a 1PN71 matrix which was another 128x element device with a 360×240p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 8-14 μm with an improved refresh rate of 30 Hz (nearly putting it on par with western sights) with the vehicle being approved for production in 1988 and entering service in 1990, however unlike the BRM-1K, which had over 3000 made, only around 70-100 were made due to economic issues and defence cuts after collapse of USSR.
The first ATGM Launcher to receive a thermal sight would be Konkurs-M and Fagot-M which in the late 80s trialled the 1PN65 and 1PN74 matrix which was a 100x element device with a 320×240p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 8-12 μm with them being approved for export production in early 00s and entering service in the mid 00s with a few thousand made for export customers.
Then in 1989-1990 the 1PN66 and 1PN80 sight for the 9P148 and 9P149 upgrades was trialed which was another 128x element device with a 384×288p thermal image resolution and an IR band of 8-12 μm but collapse of USSR prevented their adoption with them only being approved for production 148s in 1996 with over 100 9P148 being in service by early 2000s.
The Soviets created their first portable sight with their 1PN82 for the experimental Bard EOTS with 140×120 UFPA microbolometer in the late 80s however this was a very unsuccessful outcome with the fact there's little to data on it shows it must have failed similar to Progress-2M.
In 1984 to 1986 they developed a new sight with the T01-P02 sight for T-80UK and T-90K, these introduced the Agava-2 with a 384×288p thermal image resolution and a 128x (Later Agava-2s would use a 256x) element devices with an IR band of 8-14 μm and improved refresh rates up to 50 Hz and image interpolation, not only did this greatly improve identification ranges (2km) but also greatly improved image stabilisation.
Agava-2 was approved for production on T-80UKs and eventually T-90s in 1991 (after Progress-2M was cancelled) and was meant for Object 477, however economic problems after USSR collapse meant only command variants of the T-90K received the sight whilst normal T-90s received T01-K01 and the T01-K04 CPS with an Agat-M true 3rd Generation image intensifier (GaAs MCP) whilst 477 was canceled.
Domestic and export T-80UKs received the sights in the mid 90s whilst T-80UKs would be approved for production in 1995 with over 300 made for export and domestic markets and T-90K would be approved for production in 1995 with a few dozen made.
Agava-2
The Soviets first and only infrared imaging munition were the Kh-25MTP air to ground missile developed in 1989-1991 which utilised a basic 180x120 to 360×240 UPF microbolometer.
There was the 1PN62 thermal sight in the late 80s that was to replace the 1PN53 image intensifiers with a basic 128x element device with a 320x240 thermal image resolution with an 8-14 μm. It's unknown what happened.
The first thermal imager for aircraft would be the OLS-M developed during early to mid 80s for MiG-29M, Su-30 and Su-27M that utilised a 320x240 FPA microbolometer. (Some sources say it's an LLLTV and some just a TV, given OLS-30, OLS-13SM-1 and OLS-35, made from early 90s, all have a FLIR channel it's a good bet the M is the same)
There were also the following thermal imagers for reconnaissance aircraft but little information exists on them, it can be assumed they are just 1st Generation although late 80s examples could be 2nd Generation.
An-26RT / Teplo-4
An-24LP / Vulkan
An-24LR / Raguga-I
An-12R / Yanatar
Tu-142MZ / Pingvin
Tu-142MK / ATP-12M
There was also several other thermal imagers made but there function is unknown and little beyond their name is known, most are probably experimental, including
T01-P03 Progress
T01-P03M Progress-M
Benefit-1
Benefit-2
Manna-2
Rubin-1
Rubin-2
Rubin-3
1K-10T
1K-10P
Stator
Stator-1
Taiga
TV-03
Filin
Much of these are likely purely experimental imagers developed throughout the 70s and 80s.
In the early 90s Russia developed the
T01-P01 Agava-M1
TO1-PO2T Agava-2T
TO1-PO2RT Agava-2RT
TO1-PO2TI Agava-2TI
For T-80s and T-90s.
2nd Generation FLIR
T01-P05 Progress-2 developed in 1986 was the Soviets first 2nd Generation thermal imager that utilised a 48x2 sub matrix element with TDI with a thermal image resolution of 388×384p and an IR band of 8-13 μm
This lead to T01-P05 Progress-2M that utilised a 500×384p thermal image resolution with a cooled 48x4 sub element device and an IR band of 8-13 μm with a refresh rate of 50 Hz with a greatly improved 2× axis independent image stabilisation as well as image interpolation to increase resolution and pixel count on display, at this point this was probably one of the most advanced sights in USSR for a ground vehicle, these were trialled on the T-80UKs and T-80UDs in late 80s and early 90s for adoption and were supposedly to be installed on Object 490 and T-90 however this was ditched entirely due to costs and collapse of ussr and was replaced with the T01-P02 sight that was fully functioning for T-80UK and T-90K that used the Agava-2 1st Gen matrix.
The first production 2nd Generation thermals were developed in 1985-1988 which had a 500×400p thermal image resolution and 48x4 element device known as the 1TPP1 sight with an incredible identification range of 4000m for fighter sized aircraft and 3000m recognition range for afvs, this was developed for the Pantsir-S and Tunguska-M SPAAGs and the Kortik CIWS.
Over 60 Kortiks were made.
The first 2nd Generation thermal imager developed by the USSR for an aircraft was the Khod in 1989 which utilised a 500×400p thermal image resolution with a 48x4 sub matrix with an IR band of 8-14 μm.
There was the T-72M1M made for export with new 1A48 fully digital FCS with TISAS 2nd Generation thermals with a 640×480 FPA along with Arena and Shtora-1 full APS and R-163-UP GLONASS system with a TIUS C2 suite
The first 2nd Generation thermal imager by new Russia for an aircraft would be the GOES-520 for the Ka-50N in 1996 which utilised a 640×480 FPA with a 96x4 matrix element.
For IFVs, The first Russian IFV to use a 2nd Generation thermal imager was the french/Belarusian Vesna-K matrix for the sights on the BMP-1M and BMP-3M in 1996 and 1998 with a 640×480p thermal image resolution with a 480x2 matrix element with BMP-3M being approved for production in 2005 with over 1000 made.
Russia's first 2nd Generation domestic microbolometer would be Parus-98 for use with Borei, Lada and Yasen sub photonic masts developed in the early 2000s with a 640x480 thermal image resolution with an IR band of 8-12 μm.
Then 2nd Generation chinese microbolometer for the 1PN96MT sight in 2006 made for T-55M5 and M6 upgrades with a 640x480 microbolometer, this would later be utilised on mobilisation models of T-62M, T-72B and T-80BVs during the Ukraine war with nearly 2000 made.
The first portable 2nd Generation thermals that used French MBs would be the 1PN140 and 1PN139 thermal scopes made in 2013 which utilises a 640×480 FPA microblomoter with hundreds made.
Russia's first 2nd Generation device for manpads was the 1PN97 for the Verba made in 2013 and entering service in 2015 which utilises a 640×480 UFPA microbolometer, over 1000 were made.
Russia's first post soviet FPA IIR munition was the ARS-59-TP seeker in 2003 used on the Kh-59M2 that utilised a 2nd Generation 640×480 FPA microbolometer similarly with the Tubus-2TP seeker used on Kh-29TD made in 2005 for use on Su-24M2, Su-34, Su-30SM and MiG-29M with thousands made of both.
Then with 640×480 FPA microbolometers with the Kh-58UShKE-TP anti radiation missile and Kh-59MK2 stealth land attack missile in 2015 for Russian attack aircraft then finally the X-UAV ATGMs for Orion, Su-25SM3, Mi-28NM and Ka-52M. Thousands of these missiles have been made.
In the 2010s Russia created various 1st Generation 320×240 and 2nd Generation 640×480 UFPA microbolometers for use on Orlan-30, Eleron-10, Eleron-3, Eleron-7, Granat, Takhion and Zastava reconnaissance UAVs. With thousands being made.
In the 2010s Russia introduced the Scalpel, Kub and Lancet series of loitering munitions that utilise 2nd Generation 640×480 FPA microbolometers with over 70-90,000 made.
The first domestic high end 2nd Generation thermal imager utilised by Russia was the Raduga-III series of matrices from 1998 to 2013 for various sights used on the Ka-52, Mi-28N, Mi-24VM, Mi-8AMTSh-VN, Mi-24PN, Mi-8MTKO and Mi-35M upgrades throughout the 2010s along with various targeting pods like Sapsan-E that utilises a 754×568p thermal image resolution with an impressive 2x576 element device and an IR band of 8-14 μm, Mi-24PN entered service in 2006 with over 30 made, Mi-8MTKO entered service in 2009 with over 200 made, Mi-35M entered service in 2005 with over 200 made, Ka-52 entered service in 2011 with over 120 made, Mi-28N entered service in 2012 with over 130 made, Mi-8AMTSh-VN entered service in 2018 with over 50 made and Mi-24VM entered service in 2016 with over 100 made.
The first high end 2nd Generation thermals fitted to a tank would be the French licenced ESSA sight in 2006 for the T-90A and T-90S then Sosna-U in 2008 for T-72B3 and in 2016 for T-80BVM which all utilise a 768×576 UFPA with a 4×288 matrix element and an IR band of 8-12 μm. The T-90A entered service in 2009 with over 400 made, the T-90S entered service around the same time with over 2000 made, T-72B3 entered service in 2010 with over 3000 made and T-80BVM entered service in 2019 with over 1000 made.
There was the Ibris-K matrix that was utilised on the PNM-T and used on T-72B3M-A and T-90M created in 2016. It utilises a 288x4 format and 640×512p thermal image resolution.
Then there was the Taifun reconnaissance Vehicle which utilises 800×600p FPA with a 480×4 matrix element and an IR band of 8-12 μm with it being developed in 2007 and entering service in 2012.
The first high end 2nd Generation thermals developed for an IFV was the domestic Sodema and new PNM-U for new T-72B3M, T-80BVM, BMP-2M, BMP-3M and BMD-4M upgrades with a 754×576 UFPA with a FEM10 (domestic copy of Catherine-FC) 288x4 matrix element and an IR band of 8-12 μm with these being approved for production in 2013.
BMD-4M entering service in 2014 with over 200 made, BMP-2M Berezhok in 2019 with over 100 made and BMP-3M upgrades entered service in 2017 with over 900 made. Then the T-72B3M Obr 22 and T-80BVM Obr 22 with over 1500 made.
3rd Generation FLIR
After the collapse of USSR the failed Progress-2M would eventually evolve into the Russian made T01-P06 sight (and more successful TPV module) developed in the mid 90s and created in 1998 to 2000 that used a the Nocturne matrix with an improved 640×480p thermal image resolution with a 512x256 element matrix and sorted the problems (note articles on the matter do not specify what rather just "issues" likely due independent stabilisation issues and image slave issues) this was a huge leap as it was Russia's first 3rd Generation device that utilised a whole matrice with no mechanical scanning and used microscanning to increase resolution. It was made for the new T-90A tank that was prototyped in 2001 and for newer T-80UK upgrades and offered for export T-72 upgrades and supposedly to be used on the T-95 (but ditched due to costs), however the economic crisis that came in late 90s and the kickoff of the 2nd chechen war along with the fact that major funds were being diverted to the GLONASS restoration project and the fact it was increasingly expensive so these prevented its adoption (some T-90Ks would receive them) and early T-90As would just receive T01-P02 Agava-2 or T01-K05 Buran-M, Agava-2 was pretty outdated for such a modern tank (fire control, communication and weapons wise) and Buran-M being an image intensifier with an auto track channel was just embarrassing especially given that even “third world militaries” had tanks that used 1st Generation thermals in mass, this however would be sorted in 2006 with ESSA sights.
3000m> range at WFOV
In early 2000s russia created their first 3rd Generation imagers for aircraft with the Raguga-V series that was for their next generation of aircraft utilised from 2005 to 2023, these utilise a 384x388 format utilising microscannig image interpolation to achieve thermal image resolutions of 768×776p used on SOLT-25 sights and the SOLT-130K, 101KS-N Atoll-N, T-220I and NPK-SPP OLS-K targeting Pods for use on MiG-29KR, MiG-29M2, MiG-35, Su-30SM2, Su-35S, Su-57, Su-25SM3, Yak-131 and Yak-130M.
Russia created with 3rd Generation imagers for the OLS-35 and OLSM-13SM-1 Stations in 2005 for the Su-30SM2, Su-35S, MiG-29KR and MiG-35 this utilised formats of 320x240 and 388x284 with an IR band of 8-12 μm with a 776×568p and 640×480p thermal image resolution with it entering production following year with over 200 made so far The Su-35S would enter service in 2014 with over 200 made, the MiG-29KR entered service in 2012 and started receiving upgrades after 2016 whilst MiG-35 entered service in 2019 with 8 made and Su-30SM2 entered service in 2022 with over 40 made.
In 2012 Russia created the Agat-MDT for T-90A or T-80U upgrades which utilises a 320x240 matrix element and an IR band of 8-12 μm utilised a 640×512p thermal image resolution with it being approved for upgrade of T-90As in 2019 with dozens retrofitted including all T-90AK command variants.
In 2014-2016 Russia created their FEM18 (their first 3rd Generation thermals with a true high definition whole matrix) series of matrices for various sights including Victoria-K, TPVK-A, TPPVK-A, MTTD, PKD-M, PKT-T, PKT-K, PKK, PPNK, PKP-MRO and Bumerang-K which are to be for all new generation vehicles, at first it used a foreign cooling system but was replaced with domestic parts, it was also their first mass produced high definition whole matrix. It utilises a 640x512 matrix element format and a 3-5 μm IR band that can be bumped up with image interpolation/ microscanning to thermal image resolutions of 800×600p and 1280×1024p.
Its used on 2S35, T-90M, T-72B1MS, T-14, T-15, Kurganets-25, Typhoon-VDV, Bumerang, BMP B-19, BMP Manul, BMP Dragoon, BMP AU-220M, Sprut-SDM1, BMPT-72, New T-72M1MS and so on.
Russia's first ATGM launcher to utilise 3rd Generation thermals was the 1PN79-M3 for Kornet-EM then later editions of the 9P163 vehicles in 2010s that uses a 776×768p thermal image resolution with a 388x384 element matrix and an IR band of 3-5 μm with over 15,000 made.
In 2016-2018 There was the UKR-OE, GOES-451M, GOES-342M OPS-28M and OPS-24-1L for Su-34M, Mi-35P, Mi-24PN-1M, Mi-171Sh Storm, Ka-52M and Mi-28NM that utilise the latest series of Raguga with the Raguga-VM matrix made in the mid 2010s with a 640x512 format with a 1280×1024 FPA resolution.
Russia then expanded their high end microbolometers with the Kh-39 and Kh-69 in 2022 which utilised a 1280×960 UFPA format.
then the 101KS for use on the Su-57 that utilise a 640x512 FPA with a 1280×1024p thermal image resolution an IR band of 3-5 μm with it entering production in 2021 and over 50 being made.
It should be noted whilst Russia has several third generation matrices in production they have yet to build a megapixel whole matrix focal plane ("4th Gen") (at least for production). For example Catherine-MP has a thermal image resolution of 1280×1024p with a matrix format of 1280x720 . Russias best production versions use high definition 640x512 formats micro-scanned up to a thermal image resolution of 1280×1024.
Thus means a far more "crisp" image, it also allows better WFOV ranges and overall improved detection ranges and far more accurate target identification.
Russia likely has such systems in Prototype stage but has yet to be produced, its possible newer imagers use such MP formats but unknown.
Image Intensification
An image intensifier, or image intensifier tube, is the core component of night vision devices like night vision goggles. It's most commonly a vacuum tube that dramatically increases the intensity of available ambient light to allow vision in low-light conditions, such as at night.
Now before we get this out the way we need to define what Generations mean. Conventionally it means
Gen 0 = active image intensifiers
Gen 1 = passive image intensifiers
Gen 2 = MCP plate inside tube made from alkali
Gen 3 = GaAs MCP plates
Gen 2+ = Autogated improved digital MCP plates
Gen 4/3+ = thin film autogated MCP plates
But there's a problem with this especially when gauging the capabilities of tanks or vehicles in that you could have a Gen 1 device that has better results than a Gen 3 device range and capabilities wise. (TPN-1-49 that has better identification of tank sized targets in moonlight conditions than AN/PVS-7)
Example
Explains further
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=Nyw-A49Sq4g
Basically judging them SOLEY on what tube they use is not really valid when comparing actual image intensifying capabilities. Because as well will get into, soviets made mass use of 1st Generation tubes yet their image quality was no different to 2nd Gen and in some cases similar to civilian grade Gen 3 tubes.
So my criteria for Generations is as follows
Generation 0
active identification
Generation 1
Passive image intensification
<0.5 Lux minimum required
Light amplification ~1000x
Passive detection of tanks up to 300m
500-1000 hours tube life
100-200 μA/lm
15-28 lp/mm
12-19 SNR
Generation 2
MCP tubes
<0.005 Lux minimum required
Light amplification ~10,000x
Passive detection of tanks up to 800m
2000-5000 hours tube life
250-500 μA/lm
30-47 lp/mm
21-25 SNR
Generation 3
GaAs MCP plates or autogated
<0.0005 Lux minimum required
Light amplification ~30,000x
Passive detection of tanks up to 1000-2000m
7000-10,000 hours tube life
600-900 μA/lm
50-72 lp/mm
26-31 SNR
Generation 4/3+
Is unique as no tank had these so Generation 4 is purely defined as devices that utilise tubes that are filmless and autogated.
If it scores at least 4 of these categories or is the correct device then it passes.
So let's get on with it. First, quality scale for reference.
Generation 0 Night Vision
The first Soviet successful use of active image intensification was in 1937 and from 1941 the Gamma-VEI system for naval forces was produced and in 1945 the system was evolved into TSC-8 this was piloted for tank drivers and on guns, in parallel to this was the various series of goggles that were trialled in throughout the war onwards.
The TVN-1 drivers IR sight would be rolled out in the mid 50s to various combat vehicles, this would be the first mass produced image intensifier for drivers for the USSR.
The first mass produced image intensifier for the USSR was the TKN-1 commanders sight for the T-54A in 1954.
The first production soviet night vision goggles (NVGs) would be the PN57s in 1959 this would be followed with the NSP-2 scope for sniper rifles in 1963.
PN57
The TPN-1 series was the first Soviet production passive image intensifiers for tank gunners and the the first combat vehicle to receive production image intensifiers for the gunners sight would be the T-54A in 1957 that utilised the TPN-1-22-11 aided by the OU-3 IR headlight which would be followed by the TPN-1-32-23, TPN-1-87-23 and TPN-1-41-23 for the T-55A, PT-76 and T-62 throughout the late 50s to early 60s.
In 1963 the Soviets created their first passive image intensification device with the TKN-3 series for commanders sights for the new T-62, T-64 and BMP-1. Followed by the TPN-1-43, TPN-1-41 and TKN-3V for the T-62, T-64 and BMP-1P. (Export models and TKN-3B used on BMP-1 were active image intensification only)
The 1st Generation 1PN21A for 2A19 gun in 1965.
These would advance into the the 1PN22M on the BMP-1 made in 1965 then the TPN-1-49 (AKA "TPN-2") Karmin for T-64A and T-72 in 1968.
There was the 1PN69 for the 2S14 system.
The first Soviet portable passive night vision device would be the 1PN34 with 1st generation tubes in 1969 for new AK-74. Then followed with BN and PON series in early 70s.
1PN34 At 300m
Generation 2 Night Vision
The Soviets first 2nd Generation device would be the 1PN29 for the PRP-3 trialled in 1972 and entering service in 1975, for tanks this would be followed with the TPN-1M-49-23 in 1975 for T-64B then TPN-3-49 Kristall-PA for T-72A, T-64BV and T-80B starting in 1976.
The first 2nd Generation portable devices would be the 1PN58 scope in 1973 (for the newly built AK-74) and 1PN50 NVGs in mid 1970s this would be followed by the 1PN63, Filin-3 and PN57E NVGs from 1977 onwards and NSP-3 and H3T-1 scopes in the late 70s and early 80s.
The first soviet IFV to utilise true 2nd Generation night vision (soviets first known "true" 2nd Generation sights that utilise MCP tubes) would be the PPN-D sight with the Sozh in 1979-83 for the BMP-3
There was also true 2nd gen 1PN53 for 2A29 in the late 70s that would also evolve into the 1PN53-1 for the 2A45 in 1980s.
The Soviets first true 2nd Generation portable device would be the by the ONV-I NVG in 1982-83 then 1PN51 and 1PN51-2 scopes in 1984-86.
ONV-I (True Gen 2 tube)
1PN58 Gen 2 capabilities (Gen 1 tube) at 300m
2nd gen 1PN51 (True Gen 2 tube)
You can see how they are not that much different, it's also backed by SNR, lp/mm and μA/lm numbers. (As images alone can be deceving)
2nd gen AN/PVS-4 for comparison
The first Soviet commanders' sight to utilise a 2nd Generation device would be the PNK-4S housing with T01-K02 Agat-S periscope on T-80U in 1985 followed by the TKN-3M on T-64BV, T-80BV and T-72B throughout the 80s.
The first Soviet tank to utilise a true 2nd Generation image intensifiers for drivers was the T-80U with TVN-5.
Generation 3 Night Vision
The Soviets first 3rd Generation device would be the T01-K01 sight with the Buran-PA image intensifier trialled in 1983 and entering service in 1985, this would be followed with the 1PN61 for the PRP-4 in 1986, the 61 was an incredible leap as it was the Soviets first quasi digital image intensifier that instead of using just physical analogue tubes only, it actually also digitised the ranging information and displayed it on a screen for the gunner, this technology would be improved and utilised on the T01-K05 Buran-M which in the mid 90s and were also the russias first "true" 3rd Generation image intensifiers for a gunners sight for the T-80UM and eventually T-90A Prototypes which would offer a quasi target tracking ability.
The T01-K04 Sight with the Agat-M image intensifier was the first "true" and only "true" 3rd Generation sight created by the USSR, that used a GaAs ICT, for the T-90 commanders sight.
The TKN-4G for the BTR-80A in 1992 then BTR-90 in 90s and was the first mass produced true 3rd Generation image intensifier operated by Russia.
This was followed by the
In the early 90s Russia created their first true 2+ Gen tube (which can be seen as 3rd in actual capacity wise) with the 1PN93 scope which would be approved for production in 1998, these sights would be upgraded consistently with 1PN93-2 receiving improved Gen 2+ tubes and latest 1PN93-4 receiving Gen 3 in 2010s.
Russia made their first "true" 3rd Generation device for drivers with the TVK-2 in 1990s for the T-95 which would also be utilised for upgraded T-72s, T-80s and T-90s.
Russia created their first portable "true" 3rd Generation device (device that used gallium arsenide MCPs) with the 1PN72 for the Igla-S, then in 2001-2003 with the 1PN114 and 1PN110 scopes for the new AK-74M and RPG-7V2 and RPG-29 and the PN-21K NVGs and 1PN106 scope series in 2003.
Image at 300m for 1PN114
AN/PVS-7
Russias first 4th Generation device (thin film autogated) would be the 1PN138 NVG monocle made in 2012 and approved for production in 2017 similarly the 1PN141 series of rifle scopes during same time, this would be followed on in 2016 with the GEO-ONV1M for Ka-52 and Mi-28 pilots with them being approved for production in 2019.
4th gen 1PN138 up close
4th gen PVS-14 up close
Russias first panoramic NVGs would be the 4th Generation ITO-NVSH made in 2019 and entering service in 2022.
This is another one that is pretty common. I have spoken to people who genuinely believe that the Soviets never even had FPA FLIR technology or that Russia had to buy French thermals to get them.
Both of these statements are nonsense. Russia was an open country, people forget that buying other countries military equipment is common. The new M10 Booker uses a French commander's sight with french optics. The M2A2-ODS-SA Bradley was made with French optics and British FCS. The standard M2A3 Bradley uses SADA optics made by Italian Leonardo. The new thermals on the Challenger 3 are licensed built Catherine-MP imagers. The new 18x US navy Constellation Frigates are licensed FREMM ships built with consolidation from Italy.
Meanwhile the Soviets had proper FLIR in mass use by the 80s mostly on reconnaissance systems. People just focus on the tanks.
So again when people say it's bad that Russia used French thermals for some of their tanks and IFVs; they are just admitting that they don't actually know how these things work.
It's honestly crazy how pervasive this myth is. What a lot of people don't understand is that it wasn't lack of technology or know-how in the early 90s to adopt thermals but money. This was right after the collapse of the USSR and Russia was in turmoil from shock capitalism, hence why only some mass produced vehicles in the 90s received thermals and it wasn't until the 2000s that they were utilised on mass, but the technology and know how was always there.
Let's compare them to US milestones.
First for image intensifiers.
So when we compare technologies to the USA the soviets were largely equal at the start with the US first active image intensification device was the M1-S-1 scope for snipers made in 1938-1943, their first passive portable device was the AN/PVS-1 in 1959 then their AN/VVS-1 in 1965 for M60s and M48s.
(Its pretty crazy but there was an over 10 year gap between the soviets and USA, soviets had IIDs on their tanks by 1954 whilst usa wouldn't until 1965)
Their first 2nd Generation device was the AN/PVS-5 NVGs in 1972 followed by the AN/VVS-2 in 1975 for the M60A2, M60A1 RISE and M60A3 and this was followed by the AN/PVS-4 scope in 1978 for rifles.
In 1983 they started development for their 3rd Generation AN/PVS-7 NVGs which would be approved for production in 1985 and enter service in 1987.
The US first 4th Generation device was the AN/PVS-14 developed in 1998 and introduced for service in 2000 that utilised a thin film autogated GaAs MCP tube and this was followed on with the AN/PSQ-20 that combined a 160×120 microbolometer and a thin film autogated GaAs MCP tube to utilise a combination of night vision and thermal imaging. Whilst their first panoramic were in the early 2010s.
Now infrared imaging.
The first infrared thermography system was the CORONA reconnaissance satellite made in 1959 and utilised throughout the cold war.
The first US use of LLLTV or Gen 0 FLIR was the low definition AN/ASQ-145 in the mid 1960s.
The US created their first true FLIR systems in the early 70s with an early microbolometer that utilised very basic resolutions and uncooled detectors.
The first mass produced US 1st Generation FLIR was the AN/AAS-33 developed in 1974 and utilised later in 70s for the A-6E and A-7E attack aircraft, it utilised a 100x element matrix with basic 320×240p resolution this was followed with the AN/TAS-4 for the TOW-2 developed in 1976 and utilised in 1978.
The first US tank to utilise 1st generation thermals would be the M1 Abrams with the TIS which was again another basic 100x element device.
In 1979 when the US developed the TIS which utilised a 128x element matrix with a vastly improved 380×280 UFPA, then in late 80s with the TIS-GPS for A2 with a 384×288p thermal image resolution with a 256x element matrix for the M1A2 Abrams.
The first 2nd Generation infrared imaging device utilised by the USA was the nite Hawk device part of the pod system which was developed in early 80s and entered service in 1984, it utilised a 40x4 element matrix with a ~500×400p which at the time made it one of the most advanced thermals on earth second only to models utilised by France.
The first production 2nd Generation thermals for a ground vehicle would be the FLIR-LOSAT for LOSAT which utilised a 754×768p thermal image resolution with a 480x4 matrix element, this would be followed by the Italian licensed SADA II used on M2A3 Bradley and M1A2 Abrams SepV1 in 1998 which utilised a 480x2 element matrix and a 640×480p thermal image resolution.
In 2004 the US utilised their first high end 2nd Generation device for tanks with the 2GEN-FLIR used on the M1A2 Abrams SepV2 which entered service in 2008 which utilised a 4x288 element matrix and a 768×568 UFPA.
USA would develop 3rd Generation imagers I the mid 90s and In 1998 the US developed the AN/AAQ-33 part of the Sniper targeting pod which entered service in 2000, it was the USAs first 3rd Generation device which utilised a 320x256 matrix element and a 640×512 FPA.
In 2015 the USA would develop their first high end 3rd Generation device with the 3GEN-FLIR for the M1A2 Abrams SepV4 however with the cancellation of SepV4 the upgrade will be added to new build SepV3s and retrofitted to older models, this sight is a beast with a 1280x720 matrix element and a 1280×1024 FPA.
Sources
Links for Russian equipment
https://nightvisionspecialists.com/pages/understanding-image-intensified-i2-night-vision
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0022-3735/2/8/309/pdf
https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/18/11161
https://www.photonics.com/Articles/Image_Intensification_The_Technology_of_Night/a25144
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/infrared-imaging
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/tank-thermal-sights-in-the-cold-war.33343/
https://crib-blog.blogspot.com/2022/07/progression-of-thermal-imaging-sight.html?m=1
https://www.16va.be/3.4_la_reco_part1_eng.html
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/su-17-22m4-kkr-1-pod.40772/
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/soviet-targeting-pods-mercuriy-lltv.40466/
https://en.topwar.ru/14990-pervye-sovetskie-pribory-nochnogo-videniya.html
https://m.weibo.cn/status/LndLT6bh2?jumpfrom=weibocom
https://andrei-bt.livejournal.com/1174038.html
https://crib-blog.blogspot.com/p/soviet-t01-k0x-sight-family.html?m=1
https://crib-blog.blogspot.com/2020/12/agava-agava-2-and-its-confusing-history.html?m=1
https://crib-blog.blogspot.com/2021/08/soviet-unionrussian-thermal-sight.html?m=1
https://tanks-encyclopedia.com/modern/russia/t-90-obr-1992-object-188/
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/OPFOR_Worldwide_Equipment_Guide.pdf
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/t-14-armata-new-gen-russian-tank.16341/
https://www.airvectors.net/avyak25.html#m3
https://www.tankarchives.com/2013/10/night-vision.html?m=1
https://russianoptics.net/nightvision.html
https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/tu-243.htm
https://www.russiadefence.net/t5826-russian-made-scopes-and-optics
https://www.airvectors.net/avsu24.html#m2
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNRussian_51-70_ak130.php
https://www.kotsch88.de/f_agava-2.htm
https://www.kotsch88.de/f_nocturne.htm
https://www.oocities.org/russian_night_vision/
https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/soviet-infrared-equipment-in-ww2.11514/
https://forum.warthunder.com/uploads/short-url/czxn5gRqp95ZE4KdzbWcpYlYz6X.zip
https://dzen.ru/a/ZShrgL4s0FYSevkb?ysclid=m8tkkwdf4w650507177
https://dzen.ru/a/YGDm0gOLIHkM4EIP
https://www.defence-industries.com/products/pco-sa/thermal-imaging-camera
https://bmpd.livejournal.com/4244403.html?ysclid=m8tkdo1kbg419305746&es=1
https://sdelanounas.ru/blogs/131051/?ysclid=m8thyk314x278554810
https://andrei-bt.livejournal.com/1692489.html?noscroll#comments
Books for Russian equipment
Jane's Electronic Mission Aircraft 2009. Jane's Helicopter Markets & Systems 2012. Sukhoi SU-7/17/22: Soviet Fighter and Fighter Bombers. Mil Mi-24 Hind: attack helicopter. MiG: fifty years of secret aircraft design. Science and technology in the USSR. Jane's Infantry Weapons 2021/2022. Jane's infantry weapons 1992/1993. Jane's Land Warfare Platforms: Artillery & Air Defence 2014-2015. Jane’s Land Based Air Defence Systems 1991/1992 & 1997/1998. Jane's Land Warfare Platforms 2012-2013 / 2022-2023. Jane's Electro Optical Systems 1997-1998. 1999-2000 & 2004-2005. Jane's Electronic Mission Aircraft 2009. Attack aircraft Su-25T Ildar Bedretdinov. Attack aircraft Su-25 Grach Victor Markovsky, Igor Prikhodchenko Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. Alexander Mladenov Sukhoi ‘Frogfoot’ Su-25, Su-28 and Su-39. WEG 2016 Vol 2 Air and Air Defense Systems. Su-25 all variants 4+ publication. Monografie Lonticze Su-25 Su-34. Piotr Butowski Worldwide aviation 104.
Info on Generations
https://nightvisionguys.com/night-vision-generations
https://www.agmglobalvision.eu/blog/difference-between-night-vision-generations
https://www.airsoftsociety.com/threads/everything-you-need-to-know-about-night-vision-goggles.78368/
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